Presentation on the topic of the computer inside a person. Human information activity. Signed integers

1 Computer from the inside © K.Yu. Polyakov, Basic principlesBasic principles 2.Personal computerPersonal computer 3.Storing integersStoring integers 4.Bit operationsBit operations 5.Real numbersReal numbers

3 Definitions A computer is a programmable electronic device for processing numeric and symbolic data. analog computers - add and multiply analog (continuous) signals; digital computers - work with digital (discrete) data. Hardware - hardware, hardware. Software – software, “software”

4 Definitions A program is a sequence of commands that a computer must execute. A command is a description of the operation (1...4 bytes): command code operands – source data (numbers) or their addresses result (where to write). Types of instructions: unaddressed (1 byte) – increase the AX register by 1 register – high-speed memory cell located in the processor unicast (2 bytes) AX AX + 2 double-address (3 bytes) X X + 2 three-address (4 bytes) Y X + 2 inc AX add AX, 2 add ax,2 addX2 X2Y

5 Memory structure Memory consists of numbered cells. Linear structure (cell address – one number). A byte is the smallest memory cell that has its own address (4, 6, 7, 8, 12 bits). On modern computers, 1 byte = 8 bits. 0123… Word = 2 bytes Double word = 4 bytes

6 Computer architecture Architecture is the principles of operation and interconnection of the main devices of a computer (processor, RAM, external devices). Princeton architecture (von Neumann): processor RAM (program and data) output devices input devices data control direct memory access Harvard architecture - programs and data are stored in different areas of memory. direct memory access speed (we read the command and data at the same time) more contacts are needed on the processor

7 Von Neumann's principles “Preliminary report on the EDVAC machine” (1945) 1. The principle of binary coding: all information is encoded in binary form. 2. The principle of program control: a program consists of a set of commands that are executed by the processor automatically one after another in a certain sequence. 3.Memory homogeneity principle: programs and data are stored in the same memory. 4.Principle of addressing: memory consists of numbered cells; Any cell is available to the processor at any time.

8 Program execution The program counter (IP = Instruction Pointer) is a register in which the address of the next instruction is stored. IP 1. The command located at this address is transmitted to the control unit. If it is not a jump instruction, the IP register is incremented by the length of the instruction. 2.UU decrypts the addresses of the operands. 3. The operands are loaded into the ALU. 4.UU gives the command to the ALU to perform the operation. 5. The result is recorded at the required address. 6.Steps 1-5 are repeated until the “stop” command is received. AB3D 16 at AB3D 16

9 Von Neumann computer architectures multi-machine (independent tasks) RAM ALU UU RAM ALU UU RAM ALU UU RAM ALU UU multiprocessor (parts of one task, for different programs) ALU UU RAM ALU UU ALU UU ALU RAM ALU UU ALU parallel processors (parts of one task , one program)

11 Personal computer (PC) PC is a computer intended for personal use (affordable price, size, characteristics) Apple-II 1981 IBM PC (personal computer) EC-1841 iMac (1999) PowerMac G4 Cube (2000)

12 The principle of open architecture on the motherboard there are only nodes that process information (processor and auxiliary chips, memory); circuits that control other devices (monitor, etc.) are separate boards that are inserted into expansion slots; a scheme for docking new devices with computer is generally available (standard) competition, cheaper devices manufacturers can make new compatible devices the user can assemble a PC “from cubes”

13 Interrelation of blocks PC processor memory bus addresses, data, control ports keyboard, mouse, modem, printer, scanner video card network card disk drive controllers Bus is a multi-core communication line to which several devices have access. A controller is an electronic circuit that controls an external device using processor signals. controllers

15 Unsigned integers Unsigned data cannot be negative. Byte (character) memory: 1 byte = 8 bits range of values ​​0…255, 0…FF 16 = C: unsigned charPascal: byte bits low high high nibble high digit low nibble low digit 4 16 E = 4E 16 = N

17 Unsigned integers Unsigned integer memory: 2 bytes = 16 bits range of values ​​0…65535, 0…FFFF 16 = C: unsigned intPascal: word bits high byte low byte 4D 16 7A = 4D7A 16 Long unsigned integer memory: 4 bytes = 32 bit value range 0…FFFFFFFF 16 = C: unsigned long intPascal: dword

18 “-1” is a number that when added to 1 gives 0. 1 byte: FF = byte:FFFF = byte:FFFFFFFF = Signed Integers How much space is required to store the sign? ? The most significant (sign) bit of a number determines its sign. If it is 0, the number is positive, if 1, then it is negative. does not fit in 1 byte!

19 Binary's Two's Complement Problem: Represent a negative number (–a) in binary's two's complement. Solution: 1. Convert the number a–1 to the binary system. 2.Write the result into the bit grid with the required number of bits. 3. Replace all “0” with “1” and vice versa (inversion). Example: (– a) = – 78, grid 8 bits 1. a – 1 = 77 = = – 78 sign bits

20 Binary's complement Check: 78 + (– 78) = ? – 78 = 78 = +

22 Signed integers Signed byte (character) memory: 1 byte = 8 bits range of values: max min – 128 = – 2 7 … 127 = 2 8 – 1 C: charPascal: – you can work with negative numbers the range of positive numbers has decreased 127 – 128

23 Signed integers Signed word memory: 2 bytes = 16 bit range of values ​​– ... C: intPascal: integer Signed double word memory – 4 bytes range of values ​​– 2 31 ... C: long intPascal: longint

24 Errors Bit grid overflow: as a result of adding large positive numbers, a negative number is obtained (transfer to the sign bit) – 128

25 Errors Transfer: when adding large (modulo) negative numbers, a positive number is obtained (transfer beyond the boundaries of the bit grid) - into a special carry bit

27 Inversion (NOT operation) Inversion is the replacement of all “0s” with “1s” and vice versa C: Pascal: int n; n = ~n; int n; n = ~n; var n: integer; n:= not n; var n: integer; n:= not n;

28 AND Operation Notation: AND, & (C), and (Pascal) & mask 5B 16 & CC 16 = ABA & B x & 0 = x & 1 = x & 0 = x & 1 = 0 x

29 Operation AND – clearing bits Mask: all bits that are equal to “0” in the mask are cleared. Task: reset 1, 3 and 5 bits of a number, leaving the rest unchanged mask D C: Pascal: int n; n = n & 0xD5; int n; n = n & 0xD5; var n: integer; n:= n and $D5; var n: integer; n:= n and $D5;

30 Operation AND - checking bits Task: check whether it is true that all bits 2...5 are zero mask C 16 C: Pascal: if (n & 0x3C == 0) printf (Bits 2-5 are zero.); else printf (Bits 2-5 have non-zeros.); if (n & 0x3C == 0) printf (Bits 2-5 are zero.); else printf (Bits 2-5 have non-zeros.); if (n and $3C) = 1 writeln (Bits 2-5 are zero.) else writeln (Bits 2-5 have non-zeros.); if (n and $3C) = 1 writeln (Bits 2-5 are zero.) else writeln (Bits 2-5 have non-zeros.);

31 Operation OR Symbols: OR, | (C), or (Pascal) OR mask 5B 16 | CC 16 = DF 16 ABA or B x OR 0 = x OR 1 = x OR 0 = x OR 1 = 1 x

32 OR operation - setting bits to 1 Task: set all bits 2...5 equal to 1 without changing the rest mask C 16 C: Pascal: n = n | 0x3C; n:= n or $3C;

33 Exclusive OR operation ABA xor B Notations:, ^ (C), xor (Pascal) XOR mask 5B 16 ^ CC 16 = x XOR 0 = x XOR 1 = x XOR 0 = x XOR 1 = NOT x x

34 “Exclusive OR” – bit inversion Task: perform inversion for bits 2...5 without changing the rest mask C 16 C: Pascal: n = n ^ 0x3C; n:= n xor $3C;

35 “Exclusive OR” – encryption (0 xor 0) xor 0 = (1 xor 0) xor 0 = 0 1 (0 xor 1) xor 1 = (1 xor 1) xor 1 = 0 1 (X xor Y) xor Y = X code (cipher) “Exclusive OR” is a reversible operation. ? Encryption: XOR each byte of text with the cipher byte. Decryption: do the same with the same cipher.

1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left " title="36 Logical shift 11011011 1011011 1 1 Left: 0 0 0 11011011 01101101 1 1 Right: 0 0 to carry bit to carry bit C: Pascal: n = n > 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left" class="link_thumb"> 36 !} 36 Logical shift Left: Right: 0 0 in carry bit in carry bit C: Pascal: n = n > 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left shift right 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left "> 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left shift right"> 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left " title="36 Logical shift 11011011 1011011 1 1 Left: 0 0 0 11011011 01101101 1 1 Right: 0 0 to carry bit to carry bit C: Pascal: n = n > 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left"> title="36 Logical shift 11011011 1011011 1 1 Left: 0 0 0 11011011 01101101 1 1 Right: 0 0 in carry bit in carry bit C: Pascal: n = n > 1; n = n > 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; n:= n shl 1; n:= n shr 1; to carry bit to carry bit shift left"> !}

37 Logical shift What arithmetic operation is equivalent to a logical shift to the left (right)? Under what conditions? ? Logical shift left (right) is a quick way to multiply (divide without a remainder) by shift left shift right 4590

38 Cyclic shift Left: Right: C, Pascal: – only via Assembler

39 Arithmetic shift Left (= logical): Right (sign bit does not change!): C: Pascal: – n = -6; n = n >> 1; n = -6; n = n >> 1; – 6 – 3 > 1; n = -6; n = n >> 1; – 6 – 3"> > 1; n = -6; n = n >> 1; – 6 – 3"> > 1; n = -6; n = n >> 1; – 6 – 3" title="39 Arithmetic shift 11011011 1011011 1 1 Left (= logical): 0 0 0 11111010 11111101 0 0 Right (sign bit does not change!): C: Pascal: – n = -6 ; n = n >> 1; n = -6; n = n >> 1; – 6 – 3"> title="39 Arithmetic shift 11011011 1011011 1 1 Left (= logical): 0 0 0 11111010 11111101 0 0 Right (sign bit does not change!): C: Pascal: – n = -6; n = n >> 1; n = -6; n = n >> 1; – 6 – 3"> !}

40 Example Task: integer variable n (32 bits) encodes information about the color of a pixel in RGB: Select the color components into variables R, G, B. Option 1: 1.Reset all bits except G. Mask for selecting G: 0000FF Shift to the right so that the number G moves to the low byte. 0RGB C: G = (n & 0xFF00) >> 8; Pascal: G:= (n and $FF00) shr 8; Do I need to reset it? ? > 8; Pascal: G:= (n and $FF00) shr 8; Do I need to reset it? ?>

>8)&0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;" title="41 Example Option 2: 1. Shift right so that the number G moves to the low byte. 2. Clear all bits except G. Selection mask G: 000000FF 16 0RGB 31 2423 1615 87 0 C: G = (n >> 8) & 0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;" class="link_thumb"> 41 !} 41 Example Option 2: 1. Shift to the right so that the number G moves to the low byte. 2. Clear all bits except G. Mask for selecting G: FF 16 0RGB C: G = (n >> 8) & 0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF; >8)&0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;"> > 8) & 0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;"> > 8) & 0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;" title="41 Example Option 2: 1. Shift right so that the number G moves to the low byte. 2. Clear all bits except G. Selection mask G: 000000FF 16 0RGB 31 2423 1615 87 0 C: G = (n >> 8) & 0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;"> title="41 Example Option 2: 1. Shift to the right so that the number G moves to the low byte. 2. Clear all bits except G. Mask for selecting G: 000000FF 16 0RGB 31 2423 1615 87 0 C: G = (n >> 8) & 0xFF; Pascal: G:= (n shr 8) and $FF;"> !} 45 Normalized numbers in memory IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754) 15.625 = 1 1, s = 1 e = 3 M = 1, pm Sign bit: 0 if s = 1 1 if s = – 1 Sign bit: 0 if s = 1 1 if s = – 1 Shifted order: p = e + E (shift) Shifted order: p = e + E (shift) Fractional part of the mantissa: m = M – 1 Fractional part mantissa: m = M – 1 The integer part of M is always 1, so it is not stored in memory! ?

46 Normalized numbers in memory Data type Size, byte Mantissa, bit Order, bit Order shift, E Unit range Precision, decimal. digits float single ,4 … 3.4 double ,7 … 1.7 long double extended ,4 … 3.4 Data types for languages: C Pascal
48 Arithmetic operations addition 1. The order is aligned to the greater 5.5 = 1, = 1, = 0, Mantissas are added 1, The result is normalized (taking into account the order) 10, = 1, = 1000.1 2 = 8.5 5.5 + 3 = 101, = 8.5 = 1000.1 2

49 Arithmetic operations subtraction 1. The order is aligned to the greater 10.75 = 1.25 = 1, = 0, Mantissas are subtracted 1, – 0, The result is normalized (taking into account the order) 0, = 1, = 101.1 2 = 5, 5 10.75 – 5.25 = 1010.11 2 – 101.01 2 = 101.1 2 = 5.5

50 Arithmetic operations multiplication 1. Mantissas are multiplied 7 = 1, = 1, Orders are added: = 3 3. The result is normalized (taking into account the order) 10, = 1, = = = = = 21 =

51 Arithmetic operations division 1. Mantissas are divided 17.25 = 1, = 1, : 1.1 2 = 0, Orders are subtracted: 4 – 1 = 3 3. The result is normalized (taking into account the order) 0, = 1, = 101, 11 2 = 5.75 17.25: 3 = 10001.01 2: 11 2 = 5.75 = 101.11 2

All people living in society are communicators, since every individual action is carried out in conditions of direct or indirect relationships with other people, i.e. includes (along with the physical) the communicative aspect. Actions that are consciously oriented towards their semantic perception by other people are sometimes called communicative actions. Communication can be considered effective if its function (managerial, informative or phatic) is successfully completed. Unfortunately, in practice, communicative actions do not always lead to the effect expected by the communicator. One of the reasons for this is the inabilitycommunicate correctly.

Many people often communicate not so much with a person, but with an idea about that person. Sometimes it seems that they have something like a tape recorder in their head and they just need to say the text that is recorded on tape. For example, some salesman in a store continues to convince the visitor of the delights of the product, wasting both his and his time, although he has already shown with all his appearance that he DOESN’T WANT THIS. It ends with the visitor, having finally gotten rid of the intrusive consultant, quickly leaves the room, and he is looking for a new victim. In this case, we can talk about ineffective communication, since neither the seller nor the buyer achieved their goal.

Effective communication strategy.

When successful communicators were studied, they found that they had one common strategy. This communication strategy is based on interaction of people. A professional communicator always receives feedback and can, if necessary, change his own behavior.

The strategy of a successful communicator includes a number of steps, the meaning and sequence of which is briefly looks like that:

1. Calibration

2. Adjustment.

3. Leading.

1. Calibration.

The person with whom we communicate may be in different emotional and psychological states, which must be taken into account during the interaction process. Detection of even the smallest external signs of these conditions is called calibration

Calibration requires the development of certain skills in analyzing movements, muscle tension, changes in voice or breathing, etc. The differences that need to be identified can be quite subtle - a slight turn of the head, a lowering of the voice, etc. However, if you are careful enough, you can always find these differences, no matter how tiny they may seem.

The most standard set for calibration is the definition of 6 states:

1. Positive active (joy, delight, happiness).

2. Positive passive (calmness, tranquility).

3. State of interest, learning.

4. Decision-making state.

5. Negative passive (sadness, disappointment).

6. Negative active (anger, rage).

A few more useful calibrations are:

1. Yes – No.

2. Like - Don't like.

3. Truth - False.

Determining each of these states allows you to optimally build interaction with your partner to achieve the desired result.

The ability to decipher non-verbal sources of information is useful in this sense.

Australian specialist A. Pease claims that 7% of information is transmitted through words, sounds - 38%, facial expressions, gestures, postures - 55%. In other words, what is said is not so important, but how it is done.

Knowledge of sign language allows you to better understand the interlocutor and, if necessary, use non-verbal communication means in order to influence the interlocutor. It is important to pay attention not only to facial expressions - facial expressions, but also to gestures, since people control their facial expressions more than their posture and gestures. A number of the most typical gestures and ways to respond to them are described below.

Gestures of impatience:
Tapping objects or fingers, fidgeting in a chair, swinging a leg, looking at a watch, looking “past” you. If a person sits on the edge of a chair, his whole body seems to be directed forward, his hands rest on his knees - he is in a hurry, or he is so tired of the conversation that he wants to end it as soon as possible.

Gestures of emotional discomfort:
Collecting non-existent lint, shaking off clothes, scratching the neck, taking off and putting on a ring indicate that the partner is experiencing internal tension. He is not ready to make decisions and take responsibility. Try to calm him down. Keep the conversation “about nothing” for a while or switch to a less significant topic. Be sure to listen to the answers even to routine questions; people do not like to feel that they are being communicated with “formally”, without really being interested in their opinion.

Lie Gestures:
When a person wants to hide something, he unconsciously touches his face with his hand - as if “covering” the corner of his mouth with his palm, or rubbing his nose. You should not show a person that you doubt his words and catch him in a lie. Better, ask him again (“That is, if I understood you correctly, then:..”), so as to leave him a path to retreat, so that it is easier for him to return to a constructive direction.

Gestures of superiority:
An index finger pointed at you, a high raised chin, a figure in the form of “arms on hips”. Playing along with such an “important” person, slouching, nodding obsequiously and agreeing with his every word, or repeating all his movements, straightening his shoulders, raising his chin will not be very effective. The best thing to do when meeting such a pompous person is to emphasize his importance while saving your face. For example, say: “You were recommended to me as an experienced, knowledgeable specialist,” or “What would you do in my place?” Having asked such a question, of course, you must listen carefully to the answer, no matter how paradoxical it may seem to you.

Naturally, the external reactions of each person are different, so you should not unconditionally follow these recommendations, but rather study your interlocutor and try to better understand his individual reactions.

2. Adjustment.

It is very important for people that the one with whom they communicate is “one of their own.” The more “in”, the higher the trust, the better the communication. The process of becoming “one of our own” is called adjustment

Adjustment is a completely natural element of human (and not only) behavior. People practically cannot communicate unless they are tuned in. And the better the substring, the better the communication, the more successfully understanding is achieved.

The task of adjustment is to match the state of the other person as accurately as possible, while you determined the state of the interlocutor during the calibration process (see above).

A state is something internal that is one way or another manifested by external signs: voice modulations, breathing rhythm, posture, speed and style of speech. In order to adapt well to a person, you need to sit in a similar position (posture adjustment), breathe with him in the same rhythm (breathing adjustment), speak in a similar voice (voice adjustment) etc.

In psychological trainings, an exercise called “Argument” is used. It's pretty simple. People are paired up and asked to find a topic they share with each other. do not agree . Once a topic has been found, it needs to be discussed.being in the same poses all the time.

It turns out quite funny - those who are honestly in the same (adjusted) positions usually very quickly find something in common in their opinions. And those couples who get carried away by an argument very quickly try tune out from each other.

Then the reverse task follows - select topics on which the interlocutors completely agree with each other, and discuss them inrebuilt (different)poses. The result is just the opposite: those who sit in adjusted positions very quickly find something to argue about. And those who are more passionate about the discussion gradually sit in similar positions.

3. Leading.

After you have adjusted, a very interesting state occurs (it is sometimes called rapport) – if you begin to change your own behavior, your interlocutor “follows” you. You change your position and he changes it too. You changed the topic, he discusses it with pleasure. They became more cheerful - he became cheerful too.

When you are well adjusted, then you have sufficiently become one of your own, you have a high degree of trust on the part of the other person (or others), you are in rapport. If you change your behavior at the same time, your partner will follow you. You raise your hand and so does he. You change your breathing, and he follows you. And in a broader sense, it is an opportunity to guide a person in the right direction, to lead both verbally and non-verbally.

The state of leading is as natural in communication as the process of adjustment. The success of playing the role of a leader or follower is initially determined by temperament, but awareness of this mechanism in the communication process can help you, if necessary, change one role to another to achieve the best result, and the role of the leader will not always be preferable.

Effective interaction to achieve a common goal can be illustrated using the example of our little brothers. A flock of swans is able to fly for so long in one rhythm because they rigged. Their leader creates an air wave, and everyone else rides on it, like surfing. When one swan gets tired, the other becomes leading. Swans lead (and are led) to achieve a common goal.

Using I-statements for effective communication.

The strategy of a successful communicator described above provides a mechanism for directing interpersonal interaction in the direction you need in a situation of calm constructive communication. However, sometimes people encounter problems in communication that arise from a misunderstanding of each other, an inability to convey their thoughts and feelings to their partner.

In a stressful situation, we often cannot hear what is happening with another person until we feel that we ourselves are heard and understood. But if we feel that we were actually heard and understood, that we understood what we want or need, then we relax and can finally hear what is important to our interlocutor.

How to achieve this? Psychologists suggest using the so-called “I” statement to facilitate mutual understanding. When formulating an I-statement, you must:

1. Voice what is happening (in a conflict this is usually what happened, leading us to upset feelings): “When I (saw, heard, etc.) ....... (description) ....... "
2. Voice your feelings: “I felt.... (your feelings conveyed in an accessible form) .....”
3. Voice hidden desires, needs, values ​​and important things: “Because I wanted........ (your expectations, hopes, etc.) .....”
4. If necessary, ask for help: “And now I would like ...... (a request, but in no case a demand) ....”

When we voice our desires, needs, aspirations, etc., it is important to try to voice them in a positive rather than a negative way. For example, you can say “I want to live in a house in which dirty clothes are not scattered on the floor” and this, with a little mental effort, leads to the conclusion - “Live in a house that is clean and tidy.” But you must admit how different it feels when desires are voiced in a positive way.
One more example. A woman told her husband, “I don’t like the fact that you spend so much time at work.” Thinking that his wife didn't like his workaholism, the husband joined the bowling team the following week. But this did not make his wife any happier. Because she actually wanted him to spend more time with her. So, if we are more specific when voicing our desires, we are more likely to get what we actually expect to get.

Conclusion.

Effective communication is more than just conveying information. It is important not only to be able to speak, but also to be able to listen, hear and understand what the interlocutor is saying. Most people apply certain principles of effective communication at least on an intuitive level. Understanding and consciously using the psychological aspects of communication can help us build better relationships with others. It should be remembered that the most important principle of effective communication is truly sincere try to be heard and understood by those people to whom the information needs to be conveyed.

Used materials:

1. A. Lyubimov. Effective communication strategy. www.trainings.ru
2. D. Russell. Fundamentals of effective communication. www.rafo.livejournal.com
3. Fundamentals of effective communication. www. f-group.org
4. Principles of effective communication. www. dizk.ru
5. Communication. www. en.wikipedia.org

1. The computer, created in 1981, weighed 12 kilograms. At the same time, the monitor screen size was only 5 inches (as it is now on cell phones). 2. The most common cause of computer breakdowns is spilled liquid on the keyboard. The second place is occupied by problems with power outages.

3. It is impossible to create a folder on your computer with the name con, since this designation was invented for input and output devices (try it). 4. Game developer GameStation decided to check whether people read the user agreement when installing its products and for this purpose added the clause “You give your soul to the store” to it. Several thousand users didn't even notice it

5. Only in Russia and some countries of the former USSR is it called a dog. Foreigners call it a snail or a monkey. 6.70% of all emails sent over the Internet are spam.

7. CD size is 720 MB. was invented for a reason. The developers adopted this value based on the length of Beethoven's ninth symphony (72 minutes). 8. In 1982, Time magazine named the computer "Person of the Year."

"Computer in my life"

Work completed

3rd grade student

Zhakula Diana

• Computers have been a part of our lives for a long time. They radically changed the world and people's opportunities. But we all know that the computer has a positive effect. The computer has made our lives much easier. Sometimes we can no longer imagine our life without a computer and the Internet. per person, and negative. Yes, today books are slowly disappearing, but the background. And, perhaps, this is natural, given the current situation. Why read anything if you can find any essay or abstract on the Internet. Moreover, this does not require much effort, and much less time is spent. And if one day the desire to read arises, then there is no need to go to the library or fill the apartment with bookcases, because one computer replaces hundreds of bookcases.

The positive impact of computers on human life

• Let's consider the positive impact of a computer on a person. For example, the Internet has given people the opportunity to receive the latest news, gossip, and information about idols. Play very interesting and exciting on-laine games.
• Became very popular video conference. With their help, people can not only hear each other, but also see. Thus, they can resolve important issues without changing their workplace and saving both their money and time. In the Internet you can find a job, which will be highly paid and bring pleasure.

We should not forget about disabled people, sick people, people who do not have the opportunity to have real contact with other people. Internet allows you to communicate with real compatriots and other people living in other countries. This makes it possible to study the culture, customs, and history of other states. The Internet provides enormous opportunities for education, because you can find sources of information here that are not available in any library. The network allows you to quickly find an answer to your question.

• Electromagnetic radiation Every device that produces or consumes electricity creates electromagnetic radiation. This radiation is concentrated around the device in the form of an electromagnetic field. Some appliances, such as a toaster or refrigerator, produce very low levels of electromagnetic radiation. Other devices (high voltage lines, microwave ovens, televisions, computer monitors) produce much higher levels of radiation. Electromagnetic radiation cannot be seen, heard, smelled, tasted or touched, but is nonetheless present everywhere. Although no one has yet proven the harmful effects of normal levels of electromagnetic radiation on the health of children and adults, many are concerned about this problem. Such concerns are most often associated with a misunderstanding of the term radiation itself. Many of us associate this term with X-rays (or so-called ionizing radiation), i.e. high-frequency form of radiation, which has been shown to increase the chance of cancer in humans and animals. In fact, anyone familiar with the workings of a computer monitor (also called a video terminal or display) will agree that there is no point in talking about x-rays. The small amount of ionizing radiation produced by the cathode ray tube inside the monitor is effectively shielded by the glass of the tube. As for the impact of electromagnetic radiation of lower frequencies on the human body - very low frequency and ultra-low frequency radiation created by computers and other household electrical appliances, scientists and consumer rights advocates have not yet come to a consensus. Research in this area, tested in recent years, has only increased concerns and raised new questions that remain unanswered.

Ways to minimize harm from a computer

The main harmful factors affecting the health of people working at a computer: - sitting for a long time; - exposure to electromagnetic radiation from the monitor; - eye fatigue, strain on vision; - overload of the joints of the hands; - stress due to loss of information.

Seated position.

It would seem that a person sits in a relaxed position at the computer, but it is forced and unpleasant for the body: the neck, head muscles, arms and shoulders are tense, hence the excessive load on the spine, osteochondrosis, and in children - scoliosis. For those who sit a lot, a kind of heat compress is formed between the seat of the chair and the body, which leads to stagnation of blood in the pelvic organs, as a result - prostatitis and hemorrhoids, diseases the treatment of which is a long and unpleasant process. In addition, a sedentary lifestyle often leads to hypertension and obesity.

Electromagnetic radiation.

Modern monitors have become safer for health, but not yet completely. And if there is a very old monitor on your desk, it is better to stay away from it.

Effects on vision.

The eyes register the smallest vibration of a text or picture, and even more so the flickering of the screen. Overload of the eyes leads to loss of visual acuity. Poor selection of colors, fonts, window layout in the programs you use, and incorrect screen placement have a bad effect on your vision.

Overload of the joints of the hands.

The nerve endings of the fingertips seem to be broken from constant hitting the keys, numbness and weakness occur, and goosebumps run through the pads. This can lead to damage to the articular and ligamentous apparatus of the hand, and in the future hand diseases can become chronic.

Stress due to loss of information.

Not all users regularly make backup copies of their information. But viruses do not sleep, and hard drives from the best companies sometimes break, and the most experienced programmer can sometimes press the wrong button... As a result of such stress, heart attacks have also occurred.

Computer and spine

It has long been proven that a “frozen pose” has a detrimental effect on the spine. After two years of active communication with a computer, 85% of people develop all kinds of back diseases. But there is nothing difficult in preventing this disease. Everything can be corrected by an active lifestyle: spend 1.5 - 2 hours in the fresh air.

The effect of computers on vision

The biggest harm the computer does is to our vision. The fact is that human eyes are absolutely not prepared to perceive a computer image. We see all surrounding objects in reflected light. And the images consist of millions of luminous particles that light up and go out at certain intervals. Therefore, the perception of a glowing monitor becomes a huge test for our eyes.

Rules that will protect the health of your young genius.

Maintain a sense of proportion. Rest not from the child, but with the child. Time should be strictly regulated. Take a break. Optimal monitor settings. Correct screen refresh rate.

Seven steps to salvation from computer addiction.

Find your own way in what is interesting to the child. Spend as much time as possible together. At first, sit at the computer together, then the machine will not become a great authority for him. Talk more with the child. Instill in your child a “computer taste.” Don’t buy violent games. Don't forget that children still enjoy drawing, coloring, playing with friends, sculpting, and playing sports.

• The computer is a great invention
• nie! Currently the computer
• - this is part of my life. For me
• First of all, it is a way of entertainment.
• I can listen at any time
• music, watch movies, play
• play games, read books. IN
• on the computer you can find a bunch
• information that interests you
• vanities. You can meet
• people, communicate with friends and
• there are a lot of interesting things. Bla-
• thanks to computers you can work
• surf the Internet, buy various things and relax at the same time. There are various on-line translators that help you translate different words that you don’t know. Usually, if I have free time, I spend it sitting at the computer. Now I can't imagine my life without him.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

middle School of General education

with in-depth study of individual subjects No. 256

ABSTRACT

in computer science

TOPIC: Computer inside a person

Executor Head

Shmeleva Mikhailichenko

Anna Alekseevna Natalia Viktorovna

Fokino

Introduction........................................................ ...............................................3

1. Neuron is a structural unit of the central nervous system.................................................... ..........4

2. Principles of information encoding in the central nervous system...................................................5

2.1. Neural mechanisms of perception................................................................... ..8

2.2.Perception of color from the position of a vector model

information processing................................................... .................eleven

vegetative reactions................................................... ............12

3. Neural networks.................................................. ..................................14

4. A real computer inside a person.................................................... ..16

Conclusion................................................. ........................................17

Bibliography................................................ ................................18

Annex 1................................................ ........................................19

Appendix 2................................................... ........................................21

Introduction

Many researchers liken the nervous system to a computer that regulates and coordinates the body’s vital functions. In order for a person to successfully fit into the picture of the world around him, this internal computer has to solve four main tasks. They are the main functions of the nervous system.

First of all, it perceives all stimuli acting on the body. The nervous system converts all perceived information about temperature, color, taste, smell and other characteristics of phenomena and objects into electrical impulses, which are transmitted to parts of the brain - the brain and spinal cord. Each of us has a “biological telegraph” - within its limits, signals travel at speeds of up to 400 km/h. “Telegraph wires” - roots, radicular nerves, nodes and main nerve trunks. There are 86 of them, and each is divided into many smaller branches, and all of them are “assigned” to the peripheral nervous system (see Appendix 1, Fig. 1).

Our internal computer processes the received data: analyzes, systematizes, remembers, compares with previously received messages and existing experience. The “general headquarters” that processes signals sent both from outside and from inside the body is the brain. The faithful “adjutant” at the headquarters - the spinal cord - serves as a kind of local government body, as well as a link with higher departments of the biological computer. Together with the brain, the spinal cord forms the central nervous system (CNS).

In my abstract, I examined the processes of transmission and encoding of information occurring in the nervous system from the point of view of information technology, and briefly talked about artificial neural networks and about a computer that can work inside a person.

1. Neuron is a structural unit of the central nervous system

The impeccable coherence of the nervous system is ensured by 20 billion neurons (Greek “neuron” - “vein”, “nerve”) - specialized cells. A quarter of the neurons are concentrated in the spinal cord and adjacent spinal ganglia. The rest are located in the so-called gray matter (cortex and subcortical centers) of the brain.

A neuron consists of a body (soma with a nucleus), many tree-like processes - dendrites - and a long axon (see Appendix 1, Fig. 3). Dendrites serve as input channels for nerve impulses from other neurons. Impulses enter the soma, causing its specific excitation, which then spreads along the excretory process - the axon. Neurons are connected using special contacts - synapses, in which the axon branches of one neuron come very close (at a distance of several tens of microns) to the soma or dendrites of another neuron.

Neurons located in receptors perceive external stimuli, in the gray matter of the brain stem and spinal cord they control human movements (muscles and glands), in the brain they connect sensory and motor neurons. The latter form various brain centers where information received from external stimuli is converted into motor signals.

How does this system work? Three main processes occur in neurons: synaptic excitation, synaptic inhibition and the occurrence of nerve impulses. Synaptic processes are ensured by special chemicals that are released by the endings of one neuron and interact with the surface of another. Synaptic excitation causes a response from the neuron and, upon reaching a certain threshold, turns into a nerve impulse that quickly spreads along the processes. Inhibition, on the contrary, reduces the overall level of neuron excitability.

2.Principles of information coding in the nervous system

Today we can talk about several principles of coding in the nervous system. Some of them are quite simple and characteristic of the peripheral level of information processing, others are more complex and characterize the transfer of information at higher levels of the nervous system, including the cortex.

One of the simple ways to encode information is the specificity of receptors that selectively respond to certain parameters of stimulation, for example, cones with different sensitivity to wavelengths of the visible spectrum, pressure receptors, pain, tactile, etc.

Another method of transmitting information is called frequency code. It is most clearly associated with coding the intensity of stimulation. The frequency method of encoding information about the intensity of the stimulus, including the logarithm operation, is consistent with G. Fechner’s psychophysical law that the magnitude of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus.

However, Fechner's law was later subjected to serious criticism. S. Stevens, based on his psychophysical studies conducted on people using sound, light and electrical stimulation, proposed the law of a power function instead of Fechner's law. This law states that sensation is proportional to the exponent of the stimulus, while Fechner's law represents only a special case of the power law.

Analysis of vibration signal transmission from somatic receptors has shown that information about vibration frequency is transmitted using frequency, and its intensity is encoded by the number of simultaneously active receptors.

As an alternative mechanism to the first two coding principles - labeled line and frequency code - the neuron response pattern is also considered. The stability of the temporal response pattern is a distinctive feature of neurons of a specific brain system. The system for transmitting information about stimuli using the pattern of neuron discharges has a number of limitations. In neural networks operating using this code, the principle of economy cannot be observed, since it requires additional operations and time to take into account the beginning and end of the neuron reaction, and determine its duration. In addition, the efficiency of transmitting information about a signal significantly depends on the state of the neuron, which makes this coding system not reliable enough.

The idea that information is encoded by channel number was already present in the experiments of I.P. Pavlova with a dog skin analyzer. By developing conditioned reflexes to irritation of different areas of the skin of the paw through “grazing machines,” he established the presence of a somatotopic projection in the cerebral cortex. Irritation of a certain area of ​​the skin caused a focus of excitation in a certain locus of the somatosensory cortex. The spatial correspondence between the place of application of the stimulus and the locus of excitation in the cortex was confirmed in other analyzers: visual, auditory. The tonotopic projection in the auditory cortex reflects the spatial arrangement of hair cells of the organ of Corti, which are selectively sensitive to different frequencies of sound vibrations. This kind of projection can be explained by the fact that the receptor surface is displayed on the map of the cortex through many parallel channels - lines that have their own numbers. When the signal is displaced relative to the receptor surface, the excitation maximum moves along the elements of the cortex map. The map element itself represents a local detector that selectively responds to stimulation of a certain area of ​​the receptor surface. Locality detectors, which have point receptive fields and selectively respond to touching a specific point on the skin, are the simplest detectors. The combination of locality detectors forms a map of the skin surface in the cortex. The detectors operate in parallel, each point on the skin surface is represented by an independent detector.

A similar mechanism for transmitting signals about stimuli also operates when stimuli differ not in the place of application, but in other characteristics. The appearance of the excitation locus on the detector map depends on the stimulus parameters. With their change, the locus of excitation on the map shifts. To explain the organization of a neural network operating as a detector system, E.N. Sokolov proposed a mechanism for vector signal coding.

The principle of vector coding of information was first formulated in the 50s by the Swedish scientist G. Johanson, who laid the foundation for a new direction in psychology - vector psychology. G. Johanson showed that if two points on the screen move towards each other - one horizontally, the other vertically - then a person sees the movement of one point along an inclined straight line. To explain the effect of the illusion of movement, G. Johansson used a vector representation. He considers the movement of a point as a result of the formation of a two-component vector, reflecting the action of two independent factors (movement in horizontal and vertical directions). Subsequently, he extended the vector model to the perception of movements of the human body and limbs, as well as to the movement of objects in three-dimensional space. E.N Sokolov developed vector concepts, applying them to the study of neural mechanisms of sensory processes, as well as motor and autonomic reactions.

Vector psychophysiology is a new direction focused on connecting psychological phenomena and processes with vector coding of information in neural networks.

2.1. Neural mechanisms of perception

Information about the neurons of sensory systems, accumulated over the past decades, confirms the detector principle of the neural organization of a wide variety of analyzers. Let us consider the mechanisms of perception in the nervous system using the visual analyzer as an example.

For the visual cortex, detector neurons were described that selectively respond to elements of a figure and contour - lines, stripes, angles.

An important step in the development of the theory of sensory systems was the discovery of constant detector neurons that take into account, in addition to visual signals, signals about the position of the eyes in the orbits. In the parietal cortex, the reaction of constant detector neurons is tied to a certain area of ​​​​external space, forming a constant screen. Another type of constant color-coding detector neurons was discovered by S. Zeki in the extrastriate visual cortex. Their response to certain reflective properties of the color surface of an object does not depend on lighting conditions.

The study of vertical and horizontal connections of various types of detector neurons led to the discovery of general principles of the neural architecture of the cortex. V. Mountcastle, a scientist from the medical school of Johns Hopkins University, first described the vertical principle of organization of the cerebral cortex in the 60s. Examining the neurons of the somatosensory cortex in an anesthetized cat, he found that they were grouped into vertical columns according to modality. Some speakers responded to stimulation on the right side of the body, others on the left, and the other two types of speakers differed in that some of them selectively responded to touch or to the deflection of hairs on the body (i.e., to irritation of receptors located in the upper layers of the skin) , others - on pressure or movement in the joint (to stimulate receptors in the deep layers of the skin). The columns looked like three-dimensional rectangular blocks of different sizes and passed through all cell layers. From the surface of the cortex, they looked like plates ranging in size from 20-50 microns to 0.25-0.5 mm. Later, these data were confirmed in anesthetized monkeys, and other researchers, already in non-anesthetized animals (macaques, cats, rats), also presented additional evidence of the columnar organization of the cortex.

Thanks to the work of D. Hubel and T. Wiesel, we now have a more detailed understanding of the columnar organization of the visual cortex. The researchers use the term "column", proposed by W. Mountcastle, but note that the most appropriate term would be "plate". By speaking about columnar organization, they mean that “some property of cells remains constant throughout the thickness of the cortex from its surface to the white matter, but varies in directions parallel to the surface of the cortex.” First, in the visual cortex, groups of cells (columns) associated with different ocular dominance, as the largest. It was observed that whenever a recording microelectrode entered the monkey's cortex perpendicular to its surface, it encountered cells that responded better to stimulation of only one eye. If it was introduced a few millimeters away from the previous one, but also vertically, then for all the cells encountered, only one eye was dominant - the same as before, or a different one. If the electrode was inserted at an angle and as parallel to the surface of the cortex as possible, then cells with different ocular dominance alternated. A complete change of the dominant eye occurred approximately every 1 mm.

In addition to ocular dominance columns, orientation columns have been found in the visual cortex of various animals (monkey, cat, squirrel). When the microelectrode is vertically immersed through the thickness of the visual cortex, all cells in the upper and lower layers selectively respond to the same orientation of the line. When the microelectrode is displaced, the pattern remains the same, but the preferred orientation changes, i.e. the cortex is divided into columns that prefer their orientation. Autoradiographs taken from sections of the cortex after stimulation of the eyes with strips oriented in a certain way confirmed the results of electrophysiological experiments. Adjacent columns of neurons highlight different line orientations.

Columns have also been found in the cortex that selectively respond to the direction of movement or to color. The width of color-sensitive columns in the striate cortex is about 100-250 µm. Speakers tuned to different wavelengths alternate. The column with maximum spectral sensitivity at 490-500 nm is replaced by a column with maximum color sensitivity at 610 nm. This is followed again by a column with selective sensitivity to 490-500 nm. Vertical columns in the three-dimensional structure of the cortex form an apparatus for multidimensional reflection of the external environment.

Depending on the degree of complexity of the information being processed, three types of columns are distinguished in the visual cortex. Microcolumns respond to individual gradients of the highlighted feature, for example, to one or another stimulus orientation (horizontal, vertical, or another). Macrocolumns combine microcolumns that highlight one common feature (for example, orientation), but respond to different values ​​of its gradient (different inclinations - from 0 to 180°). The hypercolumn, or module, is a local area of ​​the visual field and responds to all stimuli that fall on it. The module is a vertically organized area of ​​the cortex that processes a wide variety of stimulus characteristics (orientation, color, ocular dominance, etc.). The module is assembled from macrocolumns, each of which reacts to its own attribute of an object in a local area of ​​the visual field. The division of the cortex into small vertical subdivisions is not limited to the visual cortex. It is also present in other areas of the cortex (parietal, prefrontal, motor cortex, etc.).

In the cortex, there is not only a vertical (columnar) ordering of neurons, but also a horizontal (layer-by-layer) order. Neurons in a column are united according to a common feature. And the layers combine neurons that highlight different features, but of the same level of complexity. Detector neurons that respond to more complex signs are localized in the upper layers.

Thus, the columnar and layered organizations of cortical neurons indicate that the processing of information about the characteristics of an object, such as shape, movement, color, occurs in parallel neural channels. At the same time, the study of the detector properties of neurons shows that the principle of divergence of information processing paths along many parallel channels should be supplemented by the principle of convergence in the form of hierarchically organized neural networks. The more complex the information, the more complex the structure of a hierarchically organized neural network is required to process it.

2.2.Perception of color from the perspective of a vector model of information processing

The color analyzer includes the receptor and neural levels of the retina, LCT of the thalamus and various areas of the cortex. At the level of receptors, radiation from the visible spectrum incident on the retina in humans is converted into reactions of three types of cones containing pigments with a maximum absorption of quanta in the short-wave, medium-wave and long-wave parts of the visible spectrum. The cone response is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. In the retina and LCT there are color-opponent neurons that react oppositely to pairs of color stimuli (red-green and yellow-blue). They are often denoted by the first letters of English words: +K-S; -K+S; +U-V; -U+V. Different combinations of cone excitations cause different reactions in opponent neurons. Signals from them reach color-sensitive neurons in the cortex.

The perception of color is determined not only by the chromatic (color-sensitive) system of the visual analyzer, but also by the contribution of the achromatic system. Achromatic neurons form a local analyzer that detects the intensity of stimuli. The first information about this system can be found in the works of R. Jung, who showed that brightness and darkness in the nervous system are encoded by two independently operating channels: B neurons that measure brightness, and B neurons that evaluate darkness. The existence of light intensity detector neurons was confirmed later when cells that selectively responded to a very narrow range of light intensity were found in the rabbit visual cortex.

2.3.Vector model of control of motor and

autonomic reactions

According to the idea of ​​vector coding of information in neural networks, the implementation of a motor act or its fragment can be described as follows, referring to the conceptual reflex arc (see Appendix 1, Fig. 2). Its executive part is represented by a command neuron or a field of command neurons. Excitation of the command neuron affects the ensemble of premotor neurons and generates in them a control vector of excitation, which corresponds to a certain pattern of excited motor neurons that determines the external reaction. The field of command neurons provides a complex set of programmed responses. This is achieved by the fact that each of the command neurons in turn can influence the ensemble of premotor neurons, creating in them specific control vectors of excitation, which determine different external reactions. The entire variety of reactions can thus be represented in space, the dimension of which is determined by the number of premotor neurons, the excitation of the latter is formed by control vectors.

The structure of the conceptual reflex arc includes a block of receptors that highlight a specific category of input signals. The second block is predetectors that transform receptor signals into a form effective for selective excitation of detectors that form a signal display map. All detector neurons are projected onto command neurons in parallel. There is a block of modulating neurons, which are characterized by the fact that they are not included directly in the chain of information transmission from receptors at the input to effectors at the output. Forming “synapses on synapses,” they modulate the passage of information. Modulating neurons can be divided into local, operating within the reflex arc of one reflex, and generalized, covering reflex arcs with their influence and thereby determining the general level of the functional state. Local modulatory neurons, strengthening or weakening synaptic inputs on command neurons, redistribute the priorities of the reactions for which these command neurons are responsible. Modulating neurons act through the hippocampus, where detector maps are projected onto the “novelty” and “identity” neurons.

The response of the command neuron is determined by the scalar product of the excitation vector and the vector of synaptic connections. When the vector of synaptic connections as a result of training coincides with the excitation vector in direction, the scalar product reaches a maximum and the command neuron becomes selectively tuned to the conditioned signal. Differentiating stimuli cause excitation vectors that differ from the one that generates the conditioned stimulus. The greater this difference, the less likely it is to cause excitation of the command neuron. To perform a voluntary motor reaction, the participation of memory neurons is required. Paths not only from detector networks, but also from memory neurons, converge on command neurons.

Motor and autonomic responses are controlled by combinations of excitations generated by command neurons that act independently of each other, although some standard firing patterns appear to occur more frequently than others.

3. Neural networks

The study of the structure and functions of the central nervous system led to the emergence of a new scientific discipline - neuroinformatics. Essentially, neuroinformatics is a way to solve all kinds of problems using artificial neural networks implemented on a computer.

Neural networks are a new and very promising computing technology that provides new approaches to the study of dynamic problems in the financial field. Initially, neural networks opened up new opportunities in the field of pattern recognition, then statistical and artificial intelligence-based tools for supporting decision-making and solving problems in finance were added.

The ability to model nonlinear processes, work with noisy data, and adaptability make it possible to use neural networks to solve a wide class of financial problems. In the last few years, many software systems have been developed based on neural networks for use in such issues as operations on the commodity market, assessing the probability of bank bankruptcy, assessing creditworthiness, monitoring investments, and placing loans.

Neural network applications cover a wide variety of areas: pattern recognition, noisy data processing, pattern augmentation, associative search, classification, optimization, prediction, diagnostics, signal processing, abstraction, process control, data segmentation, information compression, complex mapping, complex process modeling, computer vision, speech recognition.

Despite the wide variety of neural network options, they all have common features. So, all of them, just like the human brain, consist of a large number of the same type of elements - neurons, which imitate the neurons of the brain, connected to each other. Figure 4 (see Appendix 1) shows a diagram of a neuron.

The figure shows that an artificial neuron, like a living one, consists of synapses connecting the neuron’s inputs to the nucleus, the neuron’s nucleus, which processes the input signals, and an axon, which connects the neuron with the neurons of the next layer. Each synapse has a weight that determines how much the corresponding neuron input affects its state.

The state of the neuron is determined by the formula

– number of neuron inputs;

– value of the i-th neuron input;

– weight of the i-th synapse.

Then the value of the neuron axon is determined by the formula

G
de - some function called activation. Most often, the so-called sigmoid is used as an activation function, which has the following form:

4. A real computer inside a person

In previous sections, the computer inside a person was spoken of in a figurative sense; however, advances in science provide reason to move from metaphor to the direct meaning of words.

Israeli scientists have created a molecular computer that uses enzymes to perform calculations.

Itamar Willner, who built the molecular calculator with his colleagues at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, believes that enzyme-powered computers could one day be implanted into the human body and used, for example, to regulate the release of drugs into the metabolic system.

Scientists created their computer using two enzymes - glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) - to run two interconnected chemical reactions. Two chemical components, hydrogen peroxide and glucose, were used as input values ​​(A and B). The presence of each chemical corresponded to a 1 in the binary code, and its absence corresponded to a 0 in the binary code. The chemical result of the enzyme reaction was determined optically.

The enzyme computer was used to perform two fundamental logical calculations known as AND (where A and B must be equal to one) and XOR (where A and B must have different values). The addition of two more enzymes, glucose oxidase and catalase, linked the two logical operations, making it possible to add binary numbers using logical functions.

Enzymes are already used in calculations using specially encoded DNA. Such DNA computers have the potential to surpass the speed and power of silicon computers because they can perform many parallel calculations and fit a huge number of components into a tiny space.

Conclusion

While working on my abstract, I learned a lot about the structure of the human central nervous system and discovered a close connection between the processes occurring inside a person and inside a machine. Undoubtedly, studying the structure of the central nervous system and the brain opens up enormous prospects for humanity. Neural networks are already solving problems that are beyond the capabilities of artificial intelligence. Neurocomputers are especially effective where an analogue of human intuition is needed for pattern recognition (recognizing faces, reading handwritten texts), preparing analytical forecasts, translating from one natural language to another, etc. It is for such problems that it is usually difficult to write an explicit algorithm. In the near future, it is possible to create electronic media comparable in capacity to the human brain. But in order to implement all the bold plans of scientists, a solid theoretical base is needed. And a young, rapidly developing science, a unique union of biology and computer science - bioinformatics, will help ensure it.

Bibliography

Encyclopedia for children. Volume 22. Computer Science. M.: Avanta+, 2003.

Encyclopedia for children. Volume 18. Man. Part 1. Origin and nature of man. How the body works. The art of being healthy. M.: Avanta+, 2001.

Encyclopedia for children. Volume 18. Man. Part 2. Architecture of the soul. Psychology of personality. The world of relationships. Psychotherapy. M.: Avanta+, 2002.

Danilova N.N. Psychophysiology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001

Martsinkovskaya T. D. History of psychology: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook institutions. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2001

NewScientist.com news service; Angewandte Chemie International Edition (vol. 45, p. 1572)

Annex 1

Fig.1. Human nervous system – central, autonomic and peripheral

Fig.2. Formation of a reflex arc

Fig.3. A neuron with many dendrites that receives information through synaptic contact with another neuron.

Fig.4. Structure of an artificial neuron

Appendix 2

A brief dictionary of terms and concepts

An axon is a process of a nerve cell (neuron) that conducts nerve impulses from the cell body to innervated organs or other nerve cells. Bundles of axons form nerves.

The hippocampus is a structure located in the deep layers of the temporal lobe of the brain.

Gradient is a vector showing the direction of the fastest change of some quantity, the value of which varies from one point in space to another.

Dendrite is a branching cytoplasmic extension of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses to the cell body.

The organ of Corti is the receptor apparatus of the auditory analyzer.

LCT – lateral geniculate body.

Locus is a specific section of DNA that differs in some property.

A neuron is a nerve cell consisting of a body and processes extending from it - relatively short dendrites and a long axon.

A pattern is a spatio-temporal picture of the development of some process.

The receptive field is a peripheral area, the stimulation of which affects the discharge of a given neuron.

Receptors are the endings of sensitive nerve fibers or specialized cells (retina, inner ear, etc.) that convert stimuli perceived from the outside (exteroceptors) or from the internal environment of the body (interoreceptors) into nervous excitation transmitted to the central nervous system.

A synapse is a structure that transmits signals from a neuron to a neighboring one (or to another cell).

Soma - 1) body, torso; 2) the totality of all cells of the body, with the exception of reproductive cells.

The somatosensory cortex is an area of ​​the cerebral cortex where afferent projections of body parts are represented.

The thalamus is the main part of the diencephalon. The main subcortical center, directing impulses of all types of sensitivity (temperature, pain, etc.) to the brain stem, subcortical nodes and cerebral cortex.

infourok.ru

The computer inside us: reality or exaggeration?

nsportal.ru

Computer Science Project The Computer Inside Us

Relevance The topic is very relevant in modern society, when a person spends most of the day working with a computer. Of course, we all understand that we cannot escape the computer, but at the same time we are aware of all the harm that it causes us. Inside each person there is a certain mechanism of a biological type, the operation of which resembles a PC device. All processes occurring in the body are interconnected, and therefore all of them, under normal conditions, can adapt to each other in a certain way. But sometimes systems fail, and then we need the help of specialists - doctors and programmers. Endocrinologists, nutritionists, orthopedists, dentists, as well as other doctors, are able to reprogram the body in such a way that the processes of various organs and systems will proceed with the complete logic of what is happening, without causing any inconvenience or causing anxiety. HypothesisIf humanity is interested in the development of computers, then in the future it is possible that, ultimately, people’s life will be artificially extended by introducing chips and certain mechanisms that can activate nerve endings or provoke bursts of a certain frequency, causing our body to move, despite to such a seemingly natural procedure as “shutting down.” Every day we turn off the computer at home and then turn it on again. So why not try to take steps towards development in order to adopt this usual procedure for the human body? GoalTo find out whether a computer can replace a person in the near future. Objectives1) Gain an understanding of information processes and the peculiarities of their flow in nature, a computer, the human body. 2) Analyze and compare the flow of information processes in the human body and in the reality around it. 3) Draw a conclusion.

weburok.com

Presentation for an individual project on the topic: The computer inside us

Attached files

schoolfiles.net

Two computers inside a person - Blog

And there is a second computer that we almost cannot control - a supercomputer, which is used to solve really important and complex problems: controlling vision, hearing, touch, balance, digestion, blood circulation, heart rate, pressure, nerves, breathing, metabolism, etc. vital, deadly important processes. The complexity of these problems is infinitely greater than our small everyday problems such as theorems or articles.

And this second computer is correspondingly infinitely more powerful; it can easily solve problems such as instantly calculating the trajectory of a snowball that we throw while running or the biochemical fight against a morning hangover.

Therefore, he can solve our toy problems like proving a theorem or writing an article in a split second - but we do not have access to this computer room with this nonsense. No one will give you machine time - it is occupied by the daily survival of the organism.

How to get it?

There are several ways. Let's say my father told me that he developed a very simple method for himself: he solved a problem without getting up from the table from dawn to dark and thinking about it for days. Simply, he said, if the body understands that I will die if I don’t prove this theorem, then at a certain moment it increases the priority of the task, transfers it to the rank of survival tasks, gives a window in the supercomputer, and then - click! and it is instantly resolved.

I tried this method, it is very painful. I, as the second generation, more relaxed, have developed my own way - to constantly think about the task so that it turns into neurosis. Forget about it, remember it, but feel discomfort, so that the resident sits in his head continuously. Then this click also happens. It is difficult to confuse the click with something else. But this is also painful, creating such an obsession, however, I personally cannot do it any other way.

There are people who think that they can get into this machine room from the back door, deceiving the guards - with the help of trances (“meditations”), alcohol, cannabis and other substances. I know some of these marketers and PR people - they, when creativity is needed, decide to “blow”. Collectively or individually. It ends in burning out - then even blowing doesn’t help, and they can no longer distinguish a real solution from the illusion of creativity.

Even when they want to write on the forum, they first consider it right to blow it hard, so sometimes you can see the result - “creative texts” with some crazy “fairy tales”, analogies, confusing logic, poems without rhyme, etc. However, some people get so excited without cannabis, simply from their own stupidity.

In general, my simple thought is that some things cannot be done without super-effort and super-persistence - neither in sports, nor in mathematics, nor in art.

alexandrblohin.livejournal.com

A computer can live... inside a person

A molecular computer that uses enzymes to perform calculations was created by Israeli scientists. Itamar Willner, who built the molecular calculator with his colleagues at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, believes that enzyme-powered computers could one day be implanted into the human body and used, for example, to regulate the release of drugs into the metabolic system.

Scientists created their computer using two enzymes—glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP)—to run two interconnected chemical reactions. Two chemical components, hydrogen peroxide and glucose, were used as input values ​​(A and B). The presence of each chemical corresponded to a 1 in the binary code, and its absence corresponded to a 0 in the binary code. The chemical result of the enzyme reaction was determined optically.

The enzyme computer was used to perform two fundamental logical calculations known as AND (where A and B must be equal to one) and XOR (where A and B must have different values). The addition of two more enzymes—glucose oxidase and catalase—linked two logical operations, making it possible to add binary numbers using logical functions.

Enzymes are already used in calculations using specially encoded DNA. Such DNA computers have the potential to surpass the speed and power of silicon computers because they can perform many parallel calculations and fit a huge number of components into a tiny space.

But Willner says the enzyme computer isn't built for speed: it can take several minutes to calculate. Most likely, it will be built into biosensor equipment and used to monitor and adjust the patient’s response to certain dosages of the drug, Newsru.com reports.

"This is a computer that can be integrated into the human body," Willner told New Scientist. "We think the enzyme computer could be used to calculate metabolic pathways."

Martin Amos from the University of Exeter, Britain, also believes such devices are very promising. “The development of simple devices like counters is essential to the successful creation of biomolecular computers,” he said.

“If such counters are built into living cells, we can imagine them playing a role in applications such as smart drug delivery, where a therapeutic agent is created where a problem occurs,” says Amos. “The counters also provide a biological “safety valve.” "prevents cells from growing uncontrollably"

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